In general you don't want to set those parameters by hand, but let the control loop estimate them. This is called adaptive control and the most common way to do it is to use a Kalman Filter. There are many tutorials on the net how to build a simple Kalman Filter.

Hi Rhoderick, Check your estimates -- for 1 km the redshift should be 1e-13, not 1e-15. The experiment is certainly possible. It's been done many times -- going up, and going down -- though usually above MSL. Doing it below MSL is on my TODO list; using either mine shaft (land) or bathysphere (sea).

hi i got through the smoke to a machine shop today and should have an estimate for eight SA22.c sinks shortly.

You can also estimate the Thevenin impedance from the data sheet numbers giving voltage swing vs current. You probably won't get rail to rail swing at 16.5 mA with your gate, or any other CMOS gate. In all likelihood, you will want to do something like use a 74__04 Hex Inverter with all 6 gates wired in parallel.

This is the command to set the DAC value --> 0x8E-A0 | Set/Request DAC values | 0x8F-A0 Within the Report Packet 0x8F-AC, the bytes 16-19 indicate “Estimate of UTC/GPS offset”, is this the time difference ?

For one thing, if the frequency estimation algorithm you depend on does averaging/least-square style of algorithms, the lower taus will be significantly lower than expected. TvB has some pretty good plots from experiments illustrating this. Another thing, one reason to get a "bump" is due to high Q in a PLL circuit.

For the one-way delay estimate, over some window of raw measurements, you produce the minimum delay one. Then you do the same for the other direction. Only using these values you then do your two-way time-transfer calculation.

The absolute uncertainty (w/o traceability) is estimated to 1ppm, as given by the initial calibration of the 5442A in 2009, one check vs. a freshly calibrated 8508A from another volt-nut in 2013 (+0.5ppm difference), and vs. two new 34465A last year (<0.5 ppm difference on 10V range).

With a quick review of electrostatics, you could estimate up a simple model and the field equations to get a more satisfying, detailed answer. It may be more straightforward to look at it from a circuit perspective.

Artificial nest experiments are probably not ideal for estimating real-nest predation rates (although they are probably better for beach nesting birds than most species), but they are probably pretty good for comparing relative rates between different areas.